Seasoning & Spices

Common seasonings and spices — English/Chinese names, cuisines, uses, effects, and health notes

English Name	Chinese Name	Cuisines Used	Dish types (when to add)	Effects on Dish	Health benefits / Downsides
Salt	盐	Global	Cooking, finishing, marinades	Enhances flavor, preserves	Essential electrolyte for nerve and muscle function (sodium). Chronic high intake linked to hypertension, increased cardiovascular disease risk; avoid excess—esp. processed foods.
Black pepper	黑胡椒	Global	Cooking, finishing, marinades	Pungency, aroma	Contains piperine which enhances bioavailability of certain nutrients (notably curcumin). Antioxidant and antimicrobial properties; may aid digestion and increase nutrient absorption. High intake can irritate GI tract in sensitive individuals.
Onion	洋葱	Global	Cooking base (sautés, stews), finishing	Sweet-savory depth	Rich in quercetin and other flavonoids with anti-inflammatory and antioxidant effects; associated with improved cardiovascular markers and antimicrobial activity. High-FODMAP for some causing bloating.
Garlic	大蒜	Global	Cooking base, marinades, finishing	Pungent umami depth	Contains allicin and sulfur compounds with antimicrobial, antihypertensive, and lipid-lowering effects in trials. May modestly reduce blood pressure and LDL cholesterol. Can cause breath/odor and GI upset; anticoagulant interactions at high doses.
Sugar	糖	Global	Baking, sauces, balancing acidic flavors, glazing	Sweetness, caramelization	Provides calories; excess intake associated with obesity, type 2 diabetes, dental caries, and metabolic syndrome. Use in moderation.
Olive oil	橄榄油	Mediterranean, global	Cooking, dressing, finishing	Rich mouthfeel, aroma	High in monounsaturated fatty acids (oleic acid) and polyphenols; reduces cardiovascular risk, improves lipid profile and has anti-inflammatory effects. Extra-virgin retains most polyphenols.
Butter	黄油	European, global	Sautéing, finishing, baking	Richness, mouthfeel, browning (Maillard)	High in saturated fat and calories; small amounts in balanced diet acceptable. Grass-fed butter higher in fat-soluble vitamins and conjugated linoleic acid. Excess intake linked to elevated LDL.
Vegetable oil	植物油	Global	Frying, cooking, dressings	Neutral fat for cooking	Composition varies by source. High in polyunsaturated fats (PUFAs) can be heart-healthy but high omega-6 intake may promote inflammation if unbalanced with omega-3s. Refining may reduce micronutrients.
Chili pepper	辣椒	Latin/Asian/African	Cooking, finishing, sauces	Heat, color	Contains capsaicin which can reduce pain, increase metabolism, and improve satiety; has anti-inflammatory properties. Can cause gastric irritation or exacerbate reflux in sensitive people.
Paprika	红椒粉	Spanish, Hungarian, global	Seasoning, rubs, stews, finishing	Sweet/ smoky/earthy, color	Rich in carotenoids (beta-carotene) and vitamin A precursors; antioxidant properties. Generally safe; smoked varieties may contain trace PAHs if poorly processed.
Cumin	孜然	Middle Eastern, Indian, Mexican	Curries, stews, rubs	Warm, earthy aroma	Contains cuminaldehyde and antioxidants; traditionally used for digestive aid and may modestly improve blood glucose and lipid profiles. Generally safe; high doses not commonly used.
Coriander seed	芫荽籽	Indian, Middle Eastern, Latin	Curries, spice blends, rubs	Citrus-earthy aroma	Contains linalool and other terpenes with antioxidant and antimicrobial properties; traditionally used for digestion and mild anxiolytic effects.
Coriander leaf / Cilantro	香菜	Latin/Asian, Middle Eastern	Garnish, finishing, salsas, chutneys	Fresh citrusy-herb aroma	Source of vitamins A, C, and K and antioxidants. Proposed chelating effects for heavy metals in preliminary studies; some people perceive soapy flavor due to genetics.
Ginger	姜	Asian, global	Cooking, marinades, teas	Warm, zesty, pungent	Gingerols and shogaols have antiemetic, anti-inflammatory, and analgesic effects. Clinically effective for nausea (pregnancy, chemo, postoperative), may reduce muscle pain and have metabolic benefits. Can interact with anticoagulants at high doses.
Soy sauce	酱油	East/Southeast Asian, global	Marinades, stir-fries, finishing, dipping	Salty umami (fermented)	Provides fermented umami (amino acids). High in sodium; some types contain histamine or gluten (wheat). Low-sodium versions available. Fermentation may yield small amounts of beneficial compounds.
Vinegar (white)	白醋	Global	Dressings, pickling, deglazing, finishing	Acidity, brightness	Acetic acid can modestly reduce postprandial glucose and improve glycemic control in some studies; may aid preservation. High acid can erode dental enamel if consumed undiluted.
Balsamic vinegar	意大利黑醋	Italian, global	Dressing, finishing, glazes	Sweet acidity, complexity	Contains polyphenols from grapes with antioxidant properties; may modestly improve lipid and glycemic markers. Often contains sugar; caloric content varies.
Rice vinegar	米醋	East Asian	Dressings, sushi rice, pickling	Milder acidity	Milder acetic acid effects; may aid digestion and glycemic responses modestly.
Lemon / lemon juice	柠檬/柠檬汁	Mediterranean, global	Finishing, dressings, marinades	Acidity, freshness, brightness	High in vitamin C and citric acid; supports iron absorption and has antioxidant effects. Acidic—can erode enamel if used excessively concentrated.
Lime	青柠	Latin/SE Asian	Finishing, marinades, dressings	Bright acidic flavor	Similar to lemon: vitamin C, antioxidants, aids iron absorption; may have antimicrobial properties in vitro.
Bay leaf	月桂叶	European, global	Long-simmered soups, stews, stocks	Aromatic depth, subtle bitterness	Contains eugenol and other volatile oils with mild antioxidant properties; used for flavor rather than nutrition. Generally safe; large amounts rarely used.
Thyme	百里香	European, Mediterranean	Roasts, soups, sauces (add early)	Herbaceous, savory	Rich in thymol and carvacrol—volatile phenols with antimicrobial and antioxidant effects; thymol may support respiratory health in traditional uses. Generally safe; concentrated oils are potent.
Rosemary	迷迭香	Mediterranean	Roasts, grills, marinades, finishing	Piney, resinous aroma	Contains rosmarinic acid, carnosic acid and carnosol—strong antioxidants with anti-inflammatory and neuroprotective properties in research. May improve digestion and circulation; rosemary oil is potent and should be used diluted.
Oregano	牛至	Mediterranean, Mexican	Tomato dishes, grills, marinades	Savory, aromatic	High in phenolic antioxidants (oregano oil rich in carvacrol and thymol) with antimicrobial properties. May support gut health and act as an antimicrobial in vitro; concentrated oils are strong.
Basil	罗勒	Italian, Southeast Asian	Finishing, salads, sauces (add late)	Sweet, peppery, aromatic	Contains eugenol and other polyphenols with anti-inflammatory and antioxidant effects; holy basil (tulsi) has adaptogenic and stress-modulating research distinct from sweet basil.
Parsley	欧芹	European, Middle Eastern	Garnish, finishing, sauces	Fresh, bright herb	High in vitamins A, C, and K, folate and flavonoids; antioxidant and anti-inflammatory potential. Contains oxalates—very large amounts may affect kidney stone formers.
Sage	鼠尾草	Mediterranean, European	Stuffing, roasts, sauces	Earthy, slightly peppery	Contains thujone (in some species) and rosmarinic acid; traditional uses for cognition and digestive issues. Some concentrated sage products may interact with medications and high thujone content can be neurotoxic—culinary use is safe.
Dill	莳萝	Scandinavian, Eastern European	Pickles, fish dishes, sauces, finishing	Fresh, anise-like	Contains flavonoids and volatile oils with antioxidant properties; used traditionally for digestive comfort and to reduce colic in infants (in teas). Culinary amounts safe.
Mint	薄荷	Middle Eastern, Mediterranean, Asian	Garnish, sauces, drinks	Cool, fresh	Peppermint oil contains menthol which is antispasmodic and effective for irritable bowel syndrome (enteric-coated formulations); helps digestion and breath freshness. May cause heartburn in reflux-prone individuals.
Tarragon	龙蒿	French	Sauces, chicken, salads (add late)	Licorice-like, aromatic	Contains estragole and eugenol; used traditionally for digestive stimulation and as an appetite stimulant. Estragole has shown carcinogenicity in high-dose animal studies—culinary amounts are generally considered safe.
Fennel seed	茴香籽	Mediterranean, Indian	Breads, sausages, spice blends	Sweet-aniseed flavor	Fennel contains anethole and other volatiles with antispasmodic and carminative properties; used for digestion, to relieve bloating and to aid lactation in some cultures. Phytoestrogenic components—use cautiously in hormone-sensitive conditions.
Fennel bulb	茴香	Mediterranean, Italian	Salads, roasts	Sweet, anise-like	Same family as fennel seed; provides fiber, vitamin C and phytonutrients—digestive benefits and antioxidant properties.
Mustard seed	芥末籽	European, Indian	Spice blends, pickling, condiments	Pungent, sharp heat (when crushed)	Mustard contains glucosinolates which may have antimicrobial and digestive-stimulating properties. Hot mustard can irritate mucous membranes; seeds are generally safe culinary agents.
Prepared mustard	芥末酱	Global	Condiment, sauces, dressings	Sharp, tangy heat	Similar to seeds; vinegar and seed components can stimulate digestion. High sodium in some prepared condiments.
Horseradish	山葵/辣根	European, Japanese (wasabi substitute)	Condiment, sauces, finishing	Sharp sinus-clearing heat	Contains allyl isothiocyanate with antimicrobial effects; used traditionally for sinus congestion and as an antimicrobial. Can irritate GI and respiratory tract in sensitive people.
Wasabi	芥末（芥子）	Japanese	Sushi, condiments	Pungent heat (sinus)	Contains isothiocyanates with antimicrobial and possible anticancer properties in vitro. Real wasabi is different from horseradish-based substitutes. Respiratory irritant in concentrated form.
Sichuan pepper	花椒	Chinese (Sichuan)	Dry-frying, spice blends, marinades	Numbing (tingling), citrusy	Contains hydroxy-alpha-sanshool which produces numbing; traditional digestive aid. Generally safe but can alter oral sensation; concentrated extracts used medicinally in research.
Sesame oil	芝麻油	East Asian, Middle Eastern	Finishing, dressings, stir-fries	Nutty aroma	Rich in lignans (sesamin, sesamol) and unsaturated fats—antioxidant and potential lipid-lowering effects. Nutrient-dense; allergenic for some individuals (sesame allergy).
Sesame seeds	芝麻	Middle Eastern, Asian	Garnish, breads, dressings	Nutty crunch	Source of calcium, magnesium, iron, and lignans; may support bone and cardiovascular health. Allergenic for susceptible individuals.
Fish sauce	鱼露	Southeast Asian	Cooking, sauces, finishing	Salty umami (fermented fish)	High in umami amino acids from fermentation; good flavor enhancer but very high sodium. Fermented products may contain histamine/tannins—people with histamine intolerance should moderate.
Oyster sauce	蚝油	Chinese, SE Asian	Stir-fries, sauces, glazing	Umami, sweet-salty	Umami-rich from oyster extracts and sugars; high sodium content. Provides some micronutrients from shellfish—be mindful of allergies.
Hoisin sauce	海鲜酱/海鮮醬	Chinese	Marinades, dipping, glazing	Sweet-savory, thick	Contains sugar and salt; provides flavor complexity. Often contains added sugars and sodium—moderate use advised.
Mirin	味淋	Japanese	Sauces, glazing, sushi rice	Sweetness, sheen	Sweet rice wine used in cooking; contains alcohol residues and sugars—adds flavor and can affect blood glucose if consumed in large quantities.
Sake	清酒	Japanese	Cooking (deglazing), marinades	Aromatic, umami-enhancing	Contains alcohol which mostly cooks off in prolonged cooking; contributes flavor. Not used for health benefits.
Miso paste	味噌	Japanese	Soups, marinades, dressings	Deep umami, savory	Fermented soybean paste containing probiotics (depending on processing) and peptides with potential benefits for gut health and blood pressure modulation; high in sodium so moderation advised.
MSG	味精	Global (additive)	Cooking, seasoning, stocks	Intensifies umami	Monosodium glutamate supplies glutamate to enhance savory flavor. Considered safe (GRAS) in normal culinary amounts; rare transient sensations reported in susceptible individuals at high isolated doses. Not a major health risk in food amounts.
Bouillon / stock powder	高汤粉/鸡精	Global	Soups, stews, sauces (base)	Umami, savory depth	Provides flavor and convenience; often high in sodium and sometimes contains additives/preservatives; reduced-sodium versions available. Nutrient content depends on the source.
Bouillon / stock (liquid)	高汤	Global	Soups, stews, sauces	Depth of flavor	Homemade stocks provide collagen, minerals, and gelatin; nutrient content variable. Commercial stocks can be high in sodium.
Worcestershire sauce	伍斯特酱	British, global	Marinades, sauces, stews	Complex umami, tanginess	Contains anchovies and fermentation-derived compounds; low-volume condiment—watch for sodium and anchovy/fish allergies.
Ketchup	番茄酱	American, global	Condiment, sauces	Sweet-tangy tomato flavor	Tomato-based source of lycopene and vitamin C if made from real tomatoes; commercial ketchup often high in sugar and salt—moderation advised.
Mayonnaise	蛋黄酱	Global	Sauces, dressings, condiments	Richness, emulsification	Energy-dense, high in fat and calories; made with eggs—safety depends on pasteurization. Source of fats and vitamin E from oils used; portion control recommended.
Sriracha	泰式辣椒酱/士力架辣酱	Thai/Vietnamese-American	Condiment, sauces	Spicy, garlicky	Chili-based condiment with capsaicin benefits in small amounts; often contains sugar and sodium—use in moderation.
Chili flakes (crushed red pepper)	辣椒片	Global	Finishing, pizzas, sauces	Heat, texture	Like other chilies, contain capsaicin (see chili pepper). May help with metabolic rate and analgesia; can irritate GI tract for some.
Smoked paprika	烟熏红椒粉	Spanish, global	Rubs, stews, finishing	Smoky warmth, color	Same carotenoid benefits as paprika; smoked varieties add smoky aroma—watch for trace contaminants if poorly processed.
Dried chilies (ancho, guajillo etc)	干辣椒（安乔等）	Mexican, Latin	Sauces, moles, stews	Complex fruity heat	Provide capsaicinoids and carotenoids; contain antioxidants and vitamins; culinary amounts safe; high heat varieties can irritate mucosa.
Cayenne	卡宴辣椒粉	Global	Spicy dishes, sauces, rubs	Sharp heat	Concentrated capsaicin source—potential benefits for pain modulation and metabolism; can worsen reflux or cause irritation if overused.
Nutmeg	肉豆蔻	European, baking, Middle Eastern	Baking, sauces, béchamel, mulling	Warm sweet spice	Contains myristicin and related compounds; low culinary doses are safe and provide antioxidant properties. Ingesting several grams can cause hallucinations, tachycardia and toxicity—avoid large doses.
Allspice	多香果	Caribbean, Middle Eastern	Jerk, baking, stews	Clove-nutmeg-pepper mix	Contains eugenol and other phenolics—antioxidant properties; culinary amounts safe.
Star anise	八角	Chinese, Vietnamese	Broths, braises, pho	Sweet licorice aroma	Contains anethole with antimicrobial properties. Beware of unsafe star anise species (Japanese star anise) which can be toxic—culinary Chinese star anise is generally safe.
Clove	丁香	Global	Baking, marinades, stews	Intense warm spice	High in eugenol with strong antioxidant, antimicrobial, and analgesic properties; used in dental pain remedies. High doses can cause hepatotoxicity and mucosal irritation.
Cinnamon	肉桂	Global (baking, Middle Eastern)	Baking, stews, beverages	Sweet-warm spice	Contains cinnamaldehyde and polyphenols; can improve insulin sensitivity modestly and has antioxidant effects. Cassia cinnamon contains coumarin which is hepatotoxic at high doses—use Ceylon cinnamon if high intake expected.
Sumac	苏玛克/苏木	Middle Eastern	Finishing, salads, meats	Tangy, citrusy	High in tannins and anthocyanins with antioxidant properties; used as a souring agent and has traditional antimicrobial uses.
Za'atar (blend)	扎塔/中东香料（混合）	Middle Eastern	Flatbreads, meats, dips (added after)	Herbaceous, nutty, tangy	Blend usually contains thyme, sumac, sesame—combines antioxidant and antimicrobial properties; sesame adds minerals and healthy fats.
Harissa	哈里萨（辣椒酱）	North African	Marinades, stews, sauces	Spicy, smoky, aromatic	Chili- and herb-based paste—contains capsaicin and antioxidant spices; ingredients vary widely—watch for added oil/sodium.
Garam masala	咖喱马沙拉（混合）	Indian	Curries, stews (added late)	Warm complex spice blend	Blend often contains cinnamon, cloves, cardamom, cumin, coriander—collective antioxidants and anti-inflammatory compounds; may aid digestion and glycemic control via constituents.
Curry powder	咖喱粉	Indian-origin, global	Curries, marinades	Complex savory-spicy blend	Often contains turmeric (curcumin), coriander, cumin, fenugreek—anti-inflammatory and antioxidant benefits largely attributable to turmeric and other spices; formulation-dependent.
Poultry seasoning (blend)	家禽香料（混合）	Western	Stuffing, roasts	Savory herbal blend	Blend typically includes sage, thyme, marjoram—combined antioxidant and antimicrobial profiles from herbs; culinary use generally safe.
Bouquet garni (herb bundle)	香草束	French	Stocks, stews (remove after)	Aromatic herbal backbone	Combination of parsley, thyme, bay leaf etc.—provides volatile antioxidants and aromatic compounds; used for flavor rather than concentrated health effects.
Tamarind	罗望子	Southeast Asian, South Asian, Latin	Sauces, chutneys, marinades	Tart-sweet acidity	Rich in tartaric acid and polyphenols; antioxidant and digestive-aiding traditional uses; some evidence for lipid-lowering and glycemic effects in animal/human studies.
Cocoa / cacao powder	可可粉	Baking, sauces	Baking, mole sauces	Bitter-chocolate depth	Rich in flavanols which improve endothelial function, reduce blood pressure and provide antioxidant benefits when minimally processed; high sugar in chocolate products can offset benefits.
Coconut milk / cream	椰奶	Southeast Asian, Caribbean	Curries, desserts, sauces	Creaminess, sweetness	Provides medium-chain triglycerides (MCTs) which are rapidly metabolized; may increase HDL but is high in saturated fat—evidence mixed. Rich in lauric acid with antimicrobial properties in vitro.
Coconut oil	椰子油	Tropical, baking, frying	Frying, baking, finishing	Creamy, tropical fat	High in saturated fat (lauric acid); may raise HDL but can also raise LDL—consume in moderation. Popular in some diets but not universally recommended for cardiovascular health.
Avocado oil	牛油果油	Global	Cooking, dressings, high-heat frying	Mild, buttery	High in monounsaturated fats and vitamin E; associated with improved lipid profiles and anti-inflammatory properties; high smoke point makes it suitable for high-heat cooking.
Peanut oil	花生油	Chinese, SE Asian, African	Frying, stir-fry, dressings	Nutty, high smoke point	High in monounsaturated and polyunsaturated fats; good for frying. Major allergen—avoid in allergic individuals.
Canola oil	菜籽油	Global	Cooking, frying, dressings	Neutral cooking oil	Low in saturated fat and relatively high in monounsaturated fats and alpha-linolenic acid (omega-3). Industrial processing can affect quality; cold-pressed better for nutrition.
Sunflower oil	葵花籽油	Global	Frying, dressings	Neutral oil	High in vitamin E (tocopherols) and PUFAs; high omega-6 levels may be pro-inflammatory if diet is unbalanced with omega-3.
Ghee	酥油	Indian, Middle Eastern	High-heat cooking, finishing	Buttery, nutty	Clarified butter—lactose-free, rich in fat-soluble vitamins (A, D, E, K) and conjugated fatty acids; high in saturated fat—moderation advised.
Lard	猪油	Traditional cuisines	Frying, baking	Rich fat, crisping	Traditional rendered pork fat—provides saturated fat and flavor; use in moderation for cardiovascular health concerns.
Tahini (sesame paste)	芝麻酱	Middle Eastern, Mediterranean	Dressings, dips, sauces	Rich, nutty	High in minerals (calcium, magnesium) and healthy fats; contains lignans with antioxidant properties. Allergenic for some.
Dried mushroom powder	干蘑菇粉	Asian, European	Umami booster in stocks, sauces	Deep earthy umami	Source of B vitamins, ergothioneine (antioxidant) in some species, and umami-enhancing compounds; certain medicinal mushrooms have immunomodulatory properties—varies by species.
Truffle oil	松露油	European, modern cuisine	Finishing (sparingly)	Intense umami-earthy aroma (synthetic often)	Usually flavoring oil—little direct nutritional benefit; some contain synthetic aromatics rather than truffle extract.
Truffle (fresh)	松露	European	Finishing, pasta, risotto	Earthy luxurious aroma	Contains volatile organic compounds that contribute aroma; prized gastronomically rather than for documented health benefits.
Herbes de Provence (blend)	普罗旺斯香草（混合）	French	Roasts, stews, grilling	Savory herbal mix	Blend of thyme, rosemary, oregano, marjoram—combined antioxidant, anti-inflammatory and antimicrobial volatile compounds; culinary applications primarily for flavor.
Celery salt	芹菜盐	American, European	Seasoning, cocktails (bloody mary)	Celery-salty flavor	Adds flavor; celery contains phthalides and other compounds linked in some studies to blood pressure effects, but culinary use mainly adds sodium—be cautious if hypertensive.
Celery seed	芹菜籽	American, pickling	Pickles, dressings	Celery-like savory notes	Used as digestive and flavor agent; contains volatile oils with potential diuretic and digestive-stimulating effects in traditional medicine.
Lavender	熏衣草	French, baking, floral desserts	Desserts, infusions, finishing	Floral, aromatic	Contains linalool and linalyl acetate—used for calming/relaxation in aromatherapy and mild anxiolytic effects in some studies. Culinary amounts typically safe; concentrated extracts are potent.
Saffron	藏红花	Persian, Spanish, Indian	Rice, paella, stews (add late)	Delicate floral, color	Contains crocin, crocetin and safranal—antioxidant and potential mood-elevating properties; evidence for mild antidepressant effects at culinary-to-supplement doses. Very expensive; high doses can be toxic.
Mahlab	麦哈勒布	Middle Eastern	Baking (breads), pastries	Almond-cherry aroma	Used as flavoring; limited clinical data—contains aromatic compounds and antioxidants in small amounts.
Fenugreek	葫芦巴	Indian, Middle Eastern	Curries, pickles, spice blends	Maple-like, bitter when raw	Contains saponins and diosgenin; evidence for modest glucose-lowering effects, increased lactation in breastfeeding mothers, and lipid profile improvements. Can cause maple-like body odor and gastrointestinal upset in some; contraindicated in pregnancy at high doses.
Mango powder (amchur)	芒果粉（阿姆楚尔）	Indian	Chutneys, marinades, finishing	Tart fruity acidity	Made from dried unripe mango—contains vitamin C and antioxidants; culinary use mainly for tartness.
Urfa biber	乌尔法辣椒粉	Turkish	Stews, kebabs, finishing	Smoky raisin-like heat	Provides capsaicinoids and antioxidants similar to other chilies; culinary amounts safe.
Pickling spice	腌制香料	Global	Pickling	Aromatic pickling flavor	Combination of spices—antimicrobial properties contribute to preservation; individual spices may have digestive or antioxidant benefits.
Pickle brine	腌制汁	Global	Salad dressings, marinades	Salty-acidic flavor	Contains vinegar and salt—may supply beneficial fermented probiotics if from lacto-fermented pickles; high sodium content often a downside.
Black cardamom	大荳蔻	Indian, Chinese	Curries, braises	Smoky-cardamom aroma	Contains cineole and terpenes with antioxidant and digestive-support properties; stronger, smokier than green cardamom.
White pepper	白胡椒	Chinese, European	Soups, light sauces	Milder peppery heat	Same species as black pepper but different processing—piperine content provides digestive stimulation and antioxidant effects.
Ground ginger	姜粉	Baking, spice blends	Baking, sauces	Warm spice	Powdered ginger contains concentrated gingerols/shogaols providing antiemetic and anti-inflammatory effects similar to fresh ginger.
Brown sugar	红糖/黄糖	Baking, sauces	Desserts, glazes	Caramel sweetness	Provides calories and some minerals in less refined forms but mainly sugar—excess leads to metabolic issues.
Vanilla	香草	Baking, desserts	Desserts, infusions	Sweet aromatic	Vanillin contains antioxidants and provides flavor; some studies suggest mood/comfort effects; culinary use safe.
Curry leaves	咖喱叶	South Indian	Tempering, curries (add early)	Aromatic, citrusy	Used traditionally for glycemic control and lipid modulation; contains antioxidants and alkaloids—evidence preliminary but promising.
Ajwain	阿育王籽	Indian	Breads, dals, spice blends	Thyme-like pungency	Contains thymol-like compounds; used for dyspepsia, flatulence, and as an antimicrobial in traditional medicine.
Dried thyme	百里香（干）	Mediterranean	Roasts, stews	Herbaceous	Same as thyme—concentrated volatile oils with antimicrobial and antioxidant properties.
Dried oregano	牛至（干）	Mediterranean	Tomato dishes, grills	Savory herb	Concentrated oregano has higher phenolic content—strong antimicrobial and antioxidant activity; oregano oil is potent and used medicinally in diluted form.
Pickled ginger	腌姜	Japanese	Sushi accompaniment	Palate cleanser	Ginger pickled in vinegar—retains some gingerol/shogaol benefits plus acetic acid effects; useful as a palate cleanser with antimicrobial vinegar.
Green onion / scallion	葱	Asian, global	Garnish, cooking base	Fresh onion aroma	Source of vitamins and sulfur compounds with mild antimicrobial and antioxidant effects; part of allium family (onion/garlic) benefits.
Shallot	小洋葱/青葱	French, Asian	Sautés, dressings	Sweet onion flavor	Similar to onions/garlic—rich in flavonoids and sulfur compounds offering antioxidant and cardiovascular benefits in diets rich in alliums.
Kaffir lime leaves	柑橘叶	Thai, SE Asian	Curries, soups (added early)	Citrusy fragrance	Used for flavoring; contains essential oils with antimicrobial and aromatic properties—limited clinical data but culinary use imparts aroma and possible digestive benefits.
Galangal	南姜	Thai, Indonesian	Curries, soups	Sharp, piney ginger-like	Contains galangin, gingerols and essential oils; demonstrated anti-inflammatory, antioxidant, antimicrobial and gastroprotective effects in animal and in vitro studies. Traditionally used for digestive upset and as an antiemetic; generally safe in culinary use.
Tamarind paste	罗望子膏	Asian, Latin	Sauces, marinades	Tart depth	Concentrated tamarind—same profile as tamarind (see above): polyphenols, tartaric acid, antioxidant and digestive properties; some evidence for lipid/glycemic benefits.
Smoked salt	烟熏盐	Various	Finishing, seasoning	Smoky salt flavor	Adds sodium and smoky flavor—no specific health benefit; excessive sodium risk applies.
Kala namak (black salt)	黑盐	South Asian	Chaats, chutneys, vegan egg substitutes	Sulfurous aroma, umami	Contains sulfur compounds contributing to taste; used traditionally for digestive aid. High sodium content—use in moderation.
Himalayan pink salt	粉红喜马拉雅盐	Various	Seasoning, finishing	Mineral salt flavor	Contains trace minerals but nutritionally similar to regular salt; main risk is excess sodium.
Black sesame	黑芝麻	Asian	Garnish, sweets, dressings	Nutty flavor, texture	High in calcium, iron and healthy fats; antioxidant lignans may support cardiovascular and bone health. Allergenic potential exists.
White sesame	白芝麻	Various	Garnish, breads, dressings	Nutty flavor	See black sesame—nutrient-dense, source of minerals and healthy fats.
Poppy seed	罂粟籽	European, Middle Eastern	Baking, sauces	Crunchy nutty note	Source of minerals (calcium, magnesium) and oils; may contain trace opiate metabolites if unwashed—consumption can affect some drug tests.
Caraway	孜然（欧洲）/葛缕子	European	Breads, pickling, stews	Earthy anise-like	Traditionally used as carminative and digestive aid; contains carvone with antimicrobial properties.
Juniper berry	杜松子	European, Scandinavian	Game, gin flavoring	Piney, resinous	Used traditionally for digestive and diuretic properties; contains terpenes with antioxidant effects; not for use during pregnancy in medicinal doses.
Sichuan chili oil	花椒辣油	Chinese	Dipping, finishing, stir-fries	Heat and numbing oil infusion	Infused chili and Sichuan pepper—capsaicin benefits plus hydroxy-alpha-sanshool from Sichuan pepper; high oil/sodium content depending on recipe.
Chili oil	辣椒油	East Asian, Chinese	Finishing, dumplings, sauces	Spicy oil infusion	Concentrated capsaicin delivery; benefits/downsides as with chilies—can be high in fat and irritant.
XO sauce	XO酱	Cantonese	Stir-fries, condiments	Umami-rich complex savory	Contains dried seafood, chili, oil—provides umami and minerals from seafood; often high in sodium and oil.
Fermented bean paste (doubanjiang)	豆瓣酱	Chinese (Sichuan)	Mapo sauce, braises, marinades	Salty, umami, fermented depth	Fermented soy/beans provide umami and may contain beneficial microbes/peptides; typically high in sodium and occasionally in capsaicin depending on recipe.
Gochujang	韩国辣酱/高丽菜酱	Korean	Marinades, stews, sauces	Spicy-sweet, fermented umami	Fermented chili-soy paste with probiotics and umami; contains sugars and sodium—some studies suggest metabolic effects from fermentation and microbial components.
Kecap manis	甜酱油（印尼）	Indonesian	Marinades, glazing	Sweet umami soy sauce	High sugar and sodium; flavorful but caloric—consume moderately.
Jalapeño	墨西哥辣椒	Mexican, Tex-Mex	Fresh, pickled, sauces	Fresh green heat	Capsaicin content and vitamin C—similar metabolic and analgesic benefits as other chilies; fresh peppers provide extra vitamins.
Chili paste	辣椒酱	Global	Sauces, marinades, finishing	Concentrated chili flavor	See chili benefits; formulations vary widely—watch for added sugars, oils, and sodium.
Bird's eye chili	小米椒	SE Asian	Curries, sauces	Very hot small chili	High capsaicin—strong effects on metabolism and pain modulation; gastrointestinal irritation risk for sensitive users.
Peppermint	薄荷（薄荷类）	Global	Teas, desserts, condiments	Cooling minty flavor	Peppermint oil (enteric-coated) is evidence-based for IBS symptom relief; menthol provides antispasmodic effects. Can worsen reflux in some.
Spearmint	留兰香	Global	Teas, garnishes, sauces	Mild mint flavor	Contains rosmarinic acid and menthol-like compounds; possible cognitive/antioxidant benefits in some studies.